Summer solstice and Halloween traditions reveal complex histories of light and darkness across Europe, challenging myths about ancient Celtic festivals.
Summer solstice traditions in Europe
On June 21, the summer solstice is celebrated with dances, songs, and bonfires across Europe, marking a tradition that has existed since time immemorial. These grand festive gatherings celebrate light and are part of a living heritage that resonates with origins across the continent, from the Mediterranean to the Baltic.Halloween and its historical roots
Similar traditions of light and darkness are also observed around October 31, with the opposition between Halloween, a commercial festival imported from the United States, and an ancient Celtic celebration, which is often seen as its degraded survival. The real history of Halloween is both less mythological and more interesting than its legend, involving scribes, an Irish identity claim in the 19th century, and a hollow turnip.Samain and its contested origins
The widespread narrative attributes Halloween's origin to a Celtic festival called Samain or Samhain, which is believed to have marked the beginning of the year and the dark season. The etymology of the Gaelic word remains controversial, with one interpretation suggesting the contraction of "sam," meaning summer, and "fuin," meaning the end.Archaeological evidence and interpretations
The Coligny calendar, an archaeological piece often cited in discussions about Samain, contains a month named Samonios and an annotation read TRINVX SAMONI, interpreted as three nights of Samonios. The linguistic affinity between Samonios and medieval Irish samain is recognized, but the position of the month in the year remains debated. The calendar does not prove the existence of a Gallic festival of the dead on November 1.Historical shaping of Halloween
The well-established Celtic genealogy of Halloween is attributed to the work of historians in the 19th century, particularly British historian Eric Hobsbawm, who highlights that many traditions considered immemorial were shaped in the 17th and 18th centuries to meet political and social needs. Irish and Scottish traditions, including Samain, were reshaped by historians of the English crown to satisfy a cultural identity demand. The etymology of Halloween, "All Hallow's Eve," comes from the ecclesiastical English rather than Gaelic, as the festival was Christian.Evolution of Halloween customs
The legend of Jack-o'-lantern, involving a blacksmith named Jack who could not enter paradise or hell, is attested as early as 1750 in Ireland and Scotland. The custom of hollowing out vegetables and placing a candle in them was later adapted by emigrants to the United States, who used pumpkins instead of turnips. Trick-or-treating, a practice most associated with Halloween, was not generalized in the United States until the 1930s.Celtic traditions in Brittany
In Brittany, where a Celtic language is still spoken, All Saints' Day maintains close ties with Samain. Beliefs in the existence of the Other world, called the Anaon, are documented as early as the 17th century, with practices such as placing illuminated beets with candles in front of houses to scare the dead. These practices are similar to those observed in Halloween today.
